Topics for Anatomy and Physiology
Find educational topics for Anatomy and Physiology aligned with the Zambian tertiary curriculum.
Diverticular Hemorrhage
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Diverticular hemorrhage is the MOST COMMON cause of LOWER GI BLEEDING (30-50%). PATHOPHYSIOLOGY: Rupture of vasa recta at diverticulum neck/dome, right colon > left. CLINICAL: PAINLESS, LARGE VOLUME, MAROON OR BRIGHT RED BLOOD PER RECTUM. Hemodynamic instability in 30%. Usually SELF-LIMITED (80%). Risk factors: NSAIDs, anticoagulants, antiplatelets, hypertension. DIAGNOSIS: COLONOSCOPY …
Colorectal Cancer: Epidemiology and Prevention
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Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the THIRD MOST COMMON CANCER and SECOND LEADING CAUSE OF CANCER DEATH worldwide. For Zambian students, CRC incidence is LOW but RISING with urbanization, Western diet, obesity, and aging population. It is no longer a 'Western' disease. ADENOCARCINOMA (95%). LOCATION: Left-sided (descending, sigmoid, rectum) > right-sided …
Colorectal Cancer: Diagnosis, Staging, and Management
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Colorectal cancer (CRC) management is MULTIDISCIPLINARY, stage-dependent, and increasingly individualized. For Zambian students, while advanced therapies (laparoscopic surgery, modern chemotherapies, targeted agents) may be limited, SURGICAL RESECTION remains the CORNERSTONE of curative treatment, and PALLIATIVE CARE is essential for advanced disease. DIAGNOSIS: COLONOSCOPY + BIOPSY is GOLD STANDARD. Location, size, …
Colonic Polyps and Polyposis Syndromes
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Colonic polyps are protrusions into the colonic lumen, classified by HISTOLOGY (adenomatous, serrated, hamartomatous, inflammatory) and MORPHOLOGY (pedunculated, sessile, flat). ADENOMATOUS POLYPS (TUBULAR, VILLOUS, TUBULOVILLOUS) are PREMALIGNANT, progress to adenocarcinoma via ADENOMA-CARCINOMA SEQUENCE (APC, KRAS, TP53 mutations). Risk: size (>1cm), villous histology, high-grade dysplasia, multiplicity. SERRATED POLYPS: HYPERPLASTIC POLYPS (benign, …
Appendicitis: Diagnosis and Management
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Acute appendicitis is the MOST COMMON SURGICAL EMERGENCY worldwide. For Zambian students, it is a DAILY PRESENTATION. Delayed diagnosis increases morbidity (perforation, abscess, peritonitis). PATHOPHYSIOLOGY: Luminal obstruction (faecolith, lymphoid hyperplasia, parasites, tumour) → bacterial overgrowth, distension, venous congestion, ischemia, necrosis, PERFORATION (24-36h). CLINICAL: CLASSIC: PERIUMBILICAL PAIN (visceral) → MIGRATES to …
Mesenteric Ischemia
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Mesenteric ischemia is a VASCULAR EMERGENCY with HIGH MORTALITY (50-80%). For Zambian students, it is a DIAGNOSTIC CHALLENGE, often missed. CLASSIFICATION: ACUTE MESENTERIC ISCHEMIA (AMI): superior mesenteric artery (SMA) embolism (50%), SMA thrombosis (20-30%), mesenteric venous thrombosis (MVT, 10-15%), non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia (NOMI, 20%). CHRONIC MESENTERIC ISCHEMIA (CMI): 'intestinal angina'. …
Intestinal Obstruction
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Intestinal obstruction is a COMMON SURGICAL EMERGENCY, a mechanical blockage of bowel lumen. For Zambian students, ETIOLOGIES reflect local epidemiology: ADHESIONS (most common, 60%, post-surgical), HERNIA (external: inguinal, femoral; internal), TUMOUR (colorectal, metastatic), VOLVULUS (sigmoid > cecal, high incidence in Africa), INTUSSUSCEPTION (children), CROHN'S DISEASE (stricture), GALLSTONE ILEUS (elderly, female). …
Hernia: Inguinal and Femoral
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Groin hernias are EXTREMELY COMMON worldwide. For Zambian students, INGUINAL HERNIA is a DAILY SURGICAL PROBLEM. NEGLECTED HERNIA leads to INCARCERATION and STRANGULATION (high morbidity, mortality). ANATOMY: INGUINAL CANAL: deep ring (lateral to inferior epigastric vessels), superficial ring (external oblique). INDIRECT INGUINAL HERNIA: enters deep ring, lateral to epigastric vessels, …
Anorectal Diseases: Hemorrhoids
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Hemorrhoids are vascular cushions in the anal canal. For Zambian students, they are EXTREMELY COMMON. INTERNAL HEMORRHOIDS: above dentate line, columnar epithelium, visceral innervation (painless). EXTERNAL HEMORRHOIDS: below dentate line, squamous epithelium, somatic innervation (painful). ETIOLOGY: Straining (constipation), prolonged sitting, pregnancy, obesity, low-fibre diet. INTERNAL HEMORRHOIDS: CLASSIFICATION (Goligher). GRADE I: …