Instrumentation artifact, such as from recent catheterization or cystoscopy, is a common cause of false-positive urine cytology results. These procedures cause mechanical trauma to the urothelium, leading to reactive cellular changes that can mimic malignancy. Reactive urothelial cells may show nuclear enlargement, prominent nucleoli, and increased N/C ratios, but they typically maintain uniform chromatin and smooth nuclear membranes. Other causes include viral infections (e.g., polyomavirus), lithiasis, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Clinical history and careful cytomorphological evaluation are essential to avoid misdiagnosis.

Break down complex topics into smaller, manageable chunks for easier recall.

Zambia

• Joseph Soko – 101 pts

• Visual Pathway Lesions
• Positive and Negative Symptoms
• Hallucinations and Delusions
• Antipsychotic Medications
• Emergency: Environmental Emergencies