The primary function of the antigen retrieval step is to reverse or mitigate the effects of formalin fixation, which creates methylene cross-links between proteins. These cross-links mask antigenic epitopes by altering the three-dimensional structure of proteins, making them inaccessible to antibodies. Antigen retrieval works by breaking some of these cross-links, thereby 'unmasking' the epitopes and restoring their ability to bind specifically to antibodies. This step is critical for successful IHC on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues. The two main methods are heat-induced epitope retrieval (HIER), which uses high temperature in a buffer, and protease-induced epitope retrieval (PIER), which uses enzymatic digestion. Without this step, many antibodies would fail to stain FFPE tissues, leading to false-negative results.

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• loveness Phiri – 1084 pts

• Visual Pathway Lesions
• Positive and Negative Symptoms
• Hallucinations and Delusions
• Antipsychotic Medications
• Emergency: Environmental Emergencies